Luther’s Idea of Vocation and the Democratization of Perfection

• In Event: Reimagining the Republic: Institutional Renewal & Virtue in Early Modern Europe

Abstract

This paper argues that Luther’s concept of vocation (Beruf) was his replacement for the concept of supererogation, which underlies the medieval understanding of monasticism. Seen in this light, the concept of vocation paradoxically democratizes perfection, making moral perfection mundane and mandatory. This innovation contributed to a strong conception of moral equality, but also occludes the possibility of civic heroism.

Max Weber observed that by framing secular occupations as divine "vocations," Luther effectively argued there is no morally higher way of life than fulfilling one’s worldly responsibilities. Luther’s use of “vocation” was a deliberate challenge to the aspiration of monasticism to surpass worldly duties. It was also a negation of the structuring concept behind the medieval understanding of monasticism—supererogation, which refers to behavior that exceeds moral obligations. Supererogation implies a moral framework that distinguishes between “the required” and “the perfect”.

Luther rejected supererogation, together with the idea of moral disparity between various states of life. He viewed these states as vocations or “callings” that divine Providence specifically commands to each individual. All stations of life become morally equal, since in the case of every person, morality consists of obeying one’s specific divine “call”.

Substituting vocation for supererogation effected a paradoxical democratization of moral perfection. Moral perfection becomes mundane: the pursuit of perfection takes place within the context of worldly professions, and the exemplars of perfection are no longer monks and hermits but ordinary citizens. Biblical passages that recommend extraordinary ways of life, such as celibacy, were consequently downplayed. Moral perfection also becomes necessary, since the two standards of “the perfect” and “the required” have merged into one. This necessity, as Weber observed in the Protestant Ethic, impels believers to methodically pursue perfection, although Luther's overall stance against “works-righteousness” moderates this effect.

As seen above, Luther’s vocational outlook contributed to a conception of moral equality. However, it also discourages individual initiative in pursuing higher moral ideals or making supererogatory contributions to the public good. This limitation arises both from its focus on obedience and its denial of the possibility of surpassing one’s duty.

Author

• Haidun Liu, Harvard University